What does Earth's core have in common with salad dressing? Maybe this

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A Yale-led team of scientists may have found a new factor to help explain the ebb and flow of Earth's magnetic field -- and it's something familiar to anyone who has made a vinaigrette for their salad.

Earth's magnetic field, produced near the center of the planet, has long acted as a buffer from the harmful radiation of solar winds emanating from the Sun. Without that protection, life on Earth would not have had the opportunity to flourish. Yet our knowledge of Earth's magnetic field and its evolution is incomplete.
In a new study published May 6 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Yale associate professor Kanani K.M. Lee and her team found that molten iron alloys containing silicon and oxygen form two distinct liquids under conditions similar to those in the Earth's core. It is a process called immiscibility.
"We observe liquid immiscibility often in everyday life, like when oil and vinegar separate in salad dressing. It is surprising that liquid phase separation can occur when atoms are being forced very close together under the immense pressures of Earth's core," said Yale graduate student Sarah Arveson, the study's lead author.
Immiscibility in complex molten alloys is common at atmospheric pressure and has been well documented by metallurgists and materials scientists. But studies of immiscible alloys at higher pressures have been limited to pressures found in Earth's upper mantle, located between Earth's crust and its core.
Even deeper, 2,900 kilometers beneath the surface, is the outer core -- a more than 2,000-kilometer thick layer of molten iron. It is the source of the planet's magnetic field. Although this hot liquid roils vigorously as it convects, making the outer core mostly well-mixed, it has a distinct liquid layer at the top. Seismic waves moving through the outer core travel slower in this top layer than they do in the rest of the outer core.
Scientists have offered several theories to explain this slow liquid layer, including the idea that immiscible iron alloys form layers in the core. But there has been no experimental or theoretical evidence to prove it until now.
Using laser-heated, diamond-anvil cell experiments to generate high pressures, combined with computer simulations, the Yale-led team reproduced conditions found in the outer core. They demonstrated two distinct, molten liquid layers: an oxygen-poor, iron-silicon liquid and an iron-silicon-oxygen liquid. Because the iron-silicon-oxygen layer is less dense, it rises to the top, forming an oxygen-rich layer of liquid.
"Our study presents the first observation of immiscible molten metal alloys at such extreme conditions, hinting that immiscibility in metallic melts may be prevalent at high pressures," said Lee.
The researchers said the findings add a new variable for understanding conditions of the early Earth, as well as how scientists interpret changes in Earth's magnetic field throughout history.
Additional authors of the study are Jie Deng of Yale and Bijaya Karki of Louisiana State University. The National Science Foundation and the Connecticut Space Grant Consortium funded the research.

Ministry of Defence urged to reopen ‘X-Files’ and take UFO sightings seriously author imageJasper HamillWednesday 8 May 2019 5:01 pm Share this article via facebook Share this article via twitter Share this article via messenger 844Shares A screenshot from a video of a ‘Tic Tac’ UFO recorded by US Navy pilots in 2004 The US Navy recently admitted that UFOs have been spotted near military facilities as it released new guidelines to ensure sightings of ‘unexplained aerial phenomena’ are reported and recorded properly. Now the British Ministry of Defence has been urged to adopt a similar approach so servicemen and women feel able to come forward with their own mysterious observations. Nick Pope, former head of the MoD’s UFO investigation desk, has drawn up a document setting out how the UK should respond to ‘anomalous events’ observed in the sky. The British writer and investigator called for UFO sightings to be taken seriously and urged his former employer to implement a policy similar to the US Navy’s guidelines. Officials closed Britain’s X-Files in 2009 and they have not been opened since. Pope sent us a copy of his guidelines and said he’d be open to teaming up the MoD once again to investigate UFOs. He said: ‘I strongly support the US Navy’s policy, which is a sensible response to the defence, national security and air safety issues raised by the phenomenon – whatever its true nature. ‘I hope the US policy initiative will lead to the UK following suit. It’s time either to re-open the MoD’s UFO project or put some new reporting arrangements in place.’ To many people, the acronym UFO conjures images of flying saucers and little green men. But there is growing evidence suggesting that at least some reports of strange aircraft in the sky may be credible, although the objects are more likely to be experimental spy planes than alien exploration craft. In the US, details of a secret research drive called the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program (AATIP) have slowly leaked into the public domain over the past two years. As well as investigating advanced technology like wormholes, anti-gravity and laser weapons, the project probed unexplained aerial phenomena including observations of aircraft travelling at extreme speeds. The Navy also admitted it received ‘a number of reports’ of unidentified aircraft travelling into protected airspace over military ranges, which means land owned by the American armed forces. Defence chiefs became so concerned about the sightings that they ordered the development of a new process to report and record mysterious sightings of ‘unauthorised’ and ‘unidentified aircraft’. However, these guidelines are not going to be released to the public. ‘I understand why the US Navy has refused to release their policy guidance to the public, but for those who want to know, I suspect my version is broadly similar to theirs,’ Pope added. Nick Pope's guidelines for the reporting of unidentified aerial phenomena A recent US Navy policy initiative concerning “unidentified aircraft” making incursions into military-controlled ranges and designated airspace has highlighted the need for similar policy guidance in the UK. Current reporting is patchy. The 2009 termination of the MoD’s UFO research and investigation program may have created a false perception that military authorities were unconcerned by such reports. The term “UFO” is, in and of itself, unhelpful, in view of the pop culture baggage associated with it. Military and civilian pilots have thus been deterred from making reports, resulting in potentially significant occurrences going unreported. On occasion, to avoid such loaded terminology, phrases such as “unusual aircraft” or “unconventional helicopter” have been used, or – as in the case of recent incidents at Gatwick Airport – sightings have been attributed to drones, which may or may not be the explanation in this instance. To ensure continuity of terminology, the term UAP (Unidentified Aerial Phenomena) should be used. The recent US Navy initiative has brought the requirement into focus, in parallel with US Department of Defense acknowledgement of some aspects of their AATIP (Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program) program. This is a program designed to assess “foreign advanced aerospace weapon threats from the present out to the next 40 years”, and which included the study of “anomalous events, such as sightings of aerodynamic vehicles in extreme manoeuvres, with unique phenomenology, reported by US Navy pilots or other credible sources.” A new MoD unit should be set up to investigate all such occurrences. All aircrew of all branches of the military who see such objects/phenomena, all civilian aircrew, all radar operators who detect uncorrelated targets, and any other military, MoD or defence contractor witnesses shokd make a full report to this unit as soon as possible. The MoD should investigate each occurrence thoroughly, cross-checking visual sightings with military and civilian radar data, and the space-tracking radar at the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at RAF Fylingdales Self-evidently, HMG, the MoD, HM Armed Forces and the CAA need to be aware of all activity in the UK Air Defence Region, because of the clear defence, national security and air safety issues raised. Unusual aerial activity (actual or perceived) may have a number of different causes, including: Foreign (or non-state actor) military activity, involving aircraft, missiles or drones engaged in operational activity, flight testing, espionage, terrorism, narcotics smuggling, or attempts to assess the capabilities of our air defence network by means of unauthorized penetrations aimed at eliciting a military response. ‘Black projects’ involving prototype technologies operated by another part of HM Armed Forces, allied nations, or defence contractors, in circumstances where the project may be highly classified, with information held only by a very few individuals with the appropriate security clearances and ‘need to know’. Drone activity from commercial companies or private individuals engaged in legitimate or illegitimate aerial photography, or in deliberately dangerous and/or disruptive activity. Misidentifications of known objects or phenomena. Radar anomalies. Hoaxes. Psychological delusions. As yet unknown causes.

Read more: https://metro.co.uk/2019/05/08/ministry-defence-urged-reopen-x-files-take-ufo-sightings-seriously-9419670/?ito=cbshare
Twitter: https://twitter.com/MetroUK | Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/MetroUK/

Ministry of Defence urged to reopen ‘X-Files’ and take UFO sightings seriously author imageJasper HamillWednesday 8 May 2019 5:01 pm Share this article via facebook Share this article via twitter Share this article via messenger 844Shares A screenshot from a video of a ‘Tic Tac’ UFO recorded by US Navy pilots in 2004 The US Navy recently admitted that UFOs have been spotted near military facilities as it released new guidelines to ensure sightings of ‘unexplained aerial phenomena’ are reported and recorded properly. Now the British Ministry of Defence has been urged to adopt a similar approach so servicemen and women feel able to come forward with their own mysterious observations. Nick Pope, former head of the MoD’s UFO investigation desk, has drawn up a document setting out how the UK should respond to ‘anomalous events’ observed in the sky. The British writer and investigator called for UFO sightings to be taken seriously and urged his former employer to implement a policy similar to the US Navy’s guidelines. Officials closed Britain’s X-Files in 2009 and they have not been opened since. Pope sent us a copy of his guidelines and said he’d be open to teaming up the MoD once again to investigate UFOs. He said: ‘I strongly support the US Navy’s policy, which is a sensible response to the defence, national security and air safety issues raised by the phenomenon – whatever its true nature. ‘I hope the US policy initiative will lead to the UK following suit. It’s time either to re-open the MoD’s UFO project or put some new reporting arrangements in place.’ To many people, the acronym UFO conjures images of flying saucers and little green men. But there is growing evidence suggesting that at least some reports of strange aircraft in the sky may be credible, although the objects are more likely to be experimental spy planes than alien exploration craft. In the US, details of a secret research drive called the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program (AATIP) have slowly leaked into the public domain over the past two years. As well as investigating advanced technology like wormholes, anti-gravity and laser weapons, the project probed unexplained aerial phenomena including observations of aircraft travelling at extreme speeds. The Navy also admitted it received ‘a number of reports’ of unidentified aircraft travelling into protected airspace over military ranges, which means land owned by the American armed forces. Defence chiefs became so concerned about the sightings that they ordered the development of a new process to report and record mysterious sightings of ‘unauthorised’ and ‘unidentified aircraft’. However, these guidelines are not going to be released to the public. ‘I understand why the US Navy has refused to release their policy guidance to the public, but for those who want to know, I suspect my version is broadly similar to theirs,’ Pope added. Nick Pope's guidelines for the reporting of unidentified aerial phenomena A recent US Navy policy initiative concerning “unidentified aircraft” making incursions into military-controlled ranges and designated airspace has highlighted the need for similar policy guidance in the UK. Current reporting is patchy. The 2009 termination of the MoD’s UFO research and investigation program may have created a false perception that military authorities were unconcerned by such reports. The term “UFO” is, in and of itself, unhelpful, in view of the pop culture baggage associated with it. Military and civilian pilots have thus been deterred from making reports, resulting in potentially significant occurrences going unreported. On occasion, to avoid such loaded terminology, phrases such as “unusual aircraft” or “unconventional helicopter” have been used, or – as in the case of recent incidents at Gatwick Airport – sightings have been attributed to drones, which may or may not be the explanation in this instance. To ensure continuity of terminology, the term UAP (Unidentified Aerial Phenomena) should be used. The recent US Navy initiative has brought the requirement into focus, in parallel with US Department of Defense acknowledgement of some aspects of their AATIP (Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program) program. This is a program designed to assess “foreign advanced aerospace weapon threats from the present out to the next 40 years”, and which included the study of “anomalous events, such as sightings of aerodynamic vehicles in extreme manoeuvres, with unique phenomenology, reported by US Navy pilots or other credible sources.” A new MoD unit should be set up to investigate all such occurrences. All aircrew of all branches of the military who see such objects/phenomena, all civilian aircrew, all radar operators who detect uncorrelated targets, and any other military, MoD or defence contractor witnesses shokd make a full report to this unit as soon as possible. The MoD should investigate each occurrence thoroughly, cross-checking visual sightings with military and civilian radar data, and the space-tracking radar at the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at RAF Fylingdales Self-evidently, HMG, the MoD, HM Armed Forces and the CAA need to be aware of all activity in the UK Air Defence Region, because of the clear defence, national security and air safety issues raised. Unusual aerial activity (actual or perceived) may have a number of different causes, including: Foreign (or non-state actor) military activity, involving aircraft, missiles or drones engaged in operational activity, flight testing, espionage, terrorism, narcotics smuggling, or attempts to assess the capabilities of our air defence network by means of unauthorized penetrations aimed at eliciting a military response. ‘Black projects’ involving prototype technologies operated by another part of HM Armed Forces, allied nations, or defence contractors, in circumstances where the project may be highly classified, with information held only by a very few individuals with the appropriate security clearances and ‘need to know’. Drone activity from commercial companies or private individuals engaged in legitimate or illegitimate aerial photography, or in deliberately dangerous and/or disruptive activity. Misidentifications of known objects or phenomena. Radar anomalies. Hoaxes. Psychological delusions. As yet unknown causes.

Read more: https://metro.co.uk/2019/05/08/ministry-defence-urged-reopen-x-files-take-ufo-sightings-seriously-9419670/?ito=cbshare
Twitter: https://twitter.com/MetroUK | Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/MetroUK/a

Ministry of Defence urged to reopen ‘X-Files’ and take UFO sightings seriously author imageJasper HamillWednesday 8 May 2019 5:01 pm Share this article via facebook Share this article via twitter Share this article via messenger 844Shares A screenshot from a video of a ‘Tic Tac’ UFO recorded by US Navy pilots in 2004 The US Navy recently admitted that UFOs have been spotted near military facilities as it released new guidelines to ensure sightings of ‘unexplained aerial phenomena’ are reported and recorded properly. Now the British Ministry of Defence has been urged to adopt a similar approach so servicemen and women feel able to come forward with their own mysterious observations. Nick Pope, former head of the MoD’s UFO investigation desk, has drawn up a document setting out how the UK should respond to ‘anomalous events’ observed in the sky. The British writer and investigator called for UFO sightings to be taken seriously and urged his former employer to implement a policy similar to the US Navy’s guidelines. Officials closed Britain’s X-Files in 2009 and they have not been opened since. Pope sent us a copy of his guidelines and said he’d be open to teaming up the MoD once again to investigate UFOs. He said: ‘I strongly support the US Navy’s policy, which is a sensible response to the defence, national security and air safety issues raised by the phenomenon – whatever its true nature. ‘I hope the US policy initiative will lead to the UK following suit. It’s time either to re-open the MoD’s UFO project or put some new reporting arrangements in place.’ To many people, the acronym UFO conjures images of flying saucers and little green men. But there is growing evidence suggesting that at least some reports of strange aircraft in the sky may be credible, although the objects are more likely to be experimental spy planes than alien exploration craft. In the US, details of a secret research drive called the Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program (AATIP) have slowly leaked into the public domain over the past two years. As well as investigating advanced technology like wormholes, anti-gravity and laser weapons, the project probed unexplained aerial phenomena including observations of aircraft travelling at extreme speeds. The Navy also admitted it received ‘a number of reports’ of unidentified aircraft travelling into protected airspace over military ranges, which means land owned by the American armed forces. Defence chiefs became so concerned about the sightings that they ordered the development of a new process to report and record mysterious sightings of ‘unauthorised’ and ‘unidentified aircraft’. However, these guidelines are not going to be released to the public. ‘I understand why the US Navy has refused to release their policy guidance to the public, but for those who want to know, I suspect my version is broadly similar to theirs,’ Pope added. Nick Pope's guidelines for the reporting of unidentified aerial phenomena A recent US Navy policy initiative concerning “unidentified aircraft” making incursions into military-controlled ranges and designated airspace has highlighted the need for similar policy guidance in the UK. Current reporting is patchy. The 2009 termination of the MoD’s UFO research and investigation program may have created a false perception that military authorities were unconcerned by such reports. The term “UFO” is, in and of itself, unhelpful, in view of the pop culture baggage associated with it. Military and civilian pilots have thus been deterred from making reports, resulting in potentially significant occurrences going unreported. On occasion, to avoid such loaded terminology, phrases such as “unusual aircraft” or “unconventional helicopter” have been used, or – as in the case of recent incidents at Gatwick Airport – sightings have been attributed to drones, which may or may not be the explanation in this instance. To ensure continuity of terminology, the term UAP (Unidentified Aerial Phenomena) should be used. The recent US Navy initiative has brought the requirement into focus, in parallel with US Department of Defense acknowledgement of some aspects of their AATIP (Advanced Aerospace Threat and Identification Program) program. This is a program designed to assess “foreign advanced aerospace weapon threats from the present out to the next 40 years”, and which included the study of “anomalous events, such as sightings of aerodynamic vehicles in extreme manoeuvres, with unique phenomenology, reported by US Navy pilots or other credible sources.” A new MoD unit should be set up to investigate all such occurrences. All aircrew of all branches of the military who see such objects/phenomena, all civilian aircrew, all radar operators who detect uncorrelated targets, and any other military, MoD or defence contractor witnesses shokd make a full report to this unit as soon as possible. The MoD should investigate each occurrence thoroughly, cross-checking visual sightings with military and civilian radar data, and the space-tracking radar at the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at RAF Fylingdales Self-evidently, HMG, the MoD, HM Armed Forces and the CAA need to be aware of all activity in the UK Air Defence Region, because of the clear defence, national security and air safety issues raised. Unusual aerial activity (actual or perceived) may have a number of different causes, including: Foreign (or non-state actor) military activity, involving aircraft, missiles or drones engaged in operational activity, flight testing, espionage, terrorism, narcotics smuggling, or attempts to assess the capabilities of our air defence network by means of unauthorized penetrations aimed at eliciting a military response. ‘Black projects’ involving prototype technologies operated by another part of HM Armed Forces, allied nations, or defence contractors, in circumstances where the project may be highly classified, with information held only by a very few individuals with the appropriate security clearances and ‘need to know’. Drone activity from commercial companies or private individuals engaged in legitimate or illegitimate aerial photography, or in deliberately dangerous and/or disruptive activity. Misidentifications of known objects or phenomena. Radar anomalies. Hoaxes. Psychological delusions. As yet unknown causes.

Read more: https://metro.co.uk/2019/05/08/ministry-defence-urged-reopen-x-files-take-ufo-sightings-seriously-9419670/?ito=cbshare
Twitter: https://twitter.com/MetroUK | Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/MetroUK/